Ethical Leadership its Variations

Ethical Leadership its Variations Abstract Researchers have concentrated efforts to uncovering aspects and conceptions of ethical leadership models that could be used in contemporary organizations to not only ensure leadership effectiveness, but also enhance follower development and realization of organizational goals.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Leadership its Variations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this light, the present analysis contributes to our understanding of one such leadership model known as ethical leadership and its variations, which include servant, spiritual and authentic leadership. The careful and exhaustive comparisons done between these leadership theories and other conventional leadership models such as transformational and charismatic leadership give credence to the fact that leader emphasis on ethical dimensions of leadership generates beneficial personal and organizational outcomes. It has also been demonstrated that value-based leadership projected in servant, spiritual and authentic leadership is predicated on shared, robustly internalized values that are promoted and acted upon by the leader, but which goes a long way to ensure leadership effectiveness, positive organizational outcomes in terms of competencies development and productivity, and follower development. Research into the servant, spiritual and authentic leadership models have demonstrated some shared, common features as well as broad differences. Although these theories may represent a paradigm shift of leadership approaches into the future, more systematic and quantitative research is needed to harmonize the varying conceptions and other grey areas of the theories discussed comprehensively in this paper. Indeed, it has been noted that the popular appeal of these evolving leadership approaches is yet to translate into credible academic respectability. Introduction Despite sustained attention by scholars and prac titioners to the wide discipline of leadership, discussions of ethical leadership in public, private and even nonprofit organizations still remains largely anecdotal and highly normative. However, as noted by Rubin, Doedorff Brown (2010), this is not to imply that the study of ethical leadership has been disregarded in its entirety.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To the contrary, scholars, driven by ethics scandals and subsequent demise of companies like Enron, World-Com, Lehman Brothers and Tyco (Millar, Delves Harris, 2010; Sendjaya et al, 2008), have concentrated efforts to uncovering aspects and conceptions of ethical leadership, contributing to rich, descriptive information on the field (Rubin et al, 2010). The present paper purposes to examine different conceptions of ethical leadership, including servant, spiritual and authentic theories, and to compare and contrast them with the transformational and charismatic theories with a view to bring into light how these conceptions could be employed to occasion important organizational outcomes. Ethical Leadership: Background Definition Although practitioners and scholars are of the opinion that ethics is the core of leadership (Xiayong, Fen Jiannong, 2011), and while the fundamental importance of leadership – particularly top management – in promoting and sustaining ethical conduct in organizations has long been understood (Brown Mitchell, 2010), it is only in the past decade that ethical leadership has been methodically studied from a descriptive and predictive social scientific perspective (Millar et al, 2010). Earlier studies as noted by Brown Mitchell (2010) looked into the effects of leadership behaviors without developing formalized theoretical conceptions. However, it was not until early 2000s when Trevià ±o and colleagues cited in Brown Mitchell (2010) engaged in the first formal explorations focused on developing an all-encompassing definition of what ethical leadership entails. Their qualitative studies, as demonstrated by these authors, revealed that ethical leaders were best depicted along two interrelated continuums: moral person and moral manager. Later, Brown et al (2005) cited in Xiaoyong et al (2011) further illuminated the conceptualization to develop a formal definition of ethical leadership as â€Å"†¦the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision making† (p. 362). Below, this paper narrows its focus to critically examine three variants of ethical leadership, namely: servant leadership, spiritual leadership, and authentic leadership.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Leadership its Variations specif ically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Servant Leadership Definition Conceptions Robinson (2009) cited in Waterman (2011) suggests that the phrase ‘servant leadership’ in its contemporary perspective â€Å"†¦was developed by Robert Greenleaf (1977), but the idea can be traced to antiquity and is associated with a range of religious beliefs† (p. 24). Due to modernization of societies, however, the concept of service has evolved from just representing the religious connotation of ‘service to others’ to a leadership approach based on not only showing care and concern for other people (Waterman, 2011), but also demonstrating the desire to build and develop them personally and professionally (Taylor et al, 2007). Holistically, therefore, servant leadership entails â€Å"†¦helping others to accomplish shared objectives by facilitating individual development, empowerment, and collective work that is consistent with t he health and long-term welfare of followers† (Yukl, 2009, p. 420). From the systematic review of literature (e.g., Yukl, 2009; Taylor et al, 2007; Sendjaya et al, 2008), several conceptions of servant leadership have crystallized, namely: integrity; altruism; humility; empathy and healing; personal growth; fairness and justice, and; empowerment. Ebener O’Connell (2010) suggest that â€Å"†¦a servant leader begins by acting with integrity, creating supportive relationships, and helping others to grow† (p. 320). As demonstrated by Page Wong (2005), servant leadership is associated with such inner qualities as humility, integrity, fairness, altruism and a servant’s attitude, which are reinforced by the development of a highly moral and spiritual character. Effects of Servant Leadership Available literature demonstrates that organizations are increasingly searching for ethical and effective leadership that not only serve others, but invests in their de velopment and executes a shared vision (Sendjaya et al, 2008; Page Wong, 2005). According to Ebener O’Connell (2010), â€Å"†¦servant leaders encourage people to go above and beyond their own immediate interests by performing organizational citizenship behaviors [which] are defined as altruistic, prosocial activities that have been shown to enhance organizational performance† (p. 315).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Irving (2005) postulates that servant leadership behaviors are intrinsically correlated to the effectiveness of teams in the realization of shared objectives or goals. Extant research on leadership demonstrates that when team members acknowledge servant leadership, they are bound to appear as whole people and trustworthy professional co-leaders – fundamental ingredients in building effective teams (Ebener O’Connell, 2010). Greenleaf (1977) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) was of the opinion that â€Å"†¦servant leadership is demonstrated whenever those served by servant leaders are positively transformed in multiple dimensions (e.g. emotionally, intellectually, socially, and spiritually) into servant leaders themselves† (p. 408). This transformation takes place collectively and repeatedly, and in turn, inspires positive changes in individuals, organizations and communities. Research on Servant Leadership Researchers and practitioners have reported a shift in the leadership paradigm for the 21st century (Taylor et al, 2007) from the traditional leadership approaches to an emerging leadership approach that appears more relevant and timely in the present context (Sendjaya et al, 2008). Greenleaf’s (1977) seminal work on servant leadership not only brought the construct to the public discourse in the mid 1970s (Irving, 2005), but also stimulated interest from other researchers who have continued to expand on the topic and to shed light on various conceptions that surround servant leadership (Yukl, 2009). According to Irving (2005), â€Å"†¦the work surrounding servant leadership from the early 1990s through 2003 focused on identifying themes that could help to operationalize the concept of servant leadership† (p. 2). To quote a few of these works, Graham (1991) cited in Irving (2005) stressed the inspirational and moral dimensions of servant leadership, while Buchen (1998) suggested that self-identity, capability for rec iprocity, relationship building, and obsession with the future were fundamental themes of servant leadership. Spears (1998) also cited in Irving (2005) â€Å"†¦emphasized the dimensions of listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment, and community building† (p. 2). Farling et al (1999) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) argued for the importance of servant leaders to demonstrate vision, influence, service to others, integrity, and trust, while Laub (1999) cited in Irving (2005) put forward the concepts of valuing people, developing people, participating in building community, exhibiting authenticity, providing leadership, and sharing leadership as essential for servant leaders. Limitations of Servant Leadership It has been suggested that although the literature â€Å"†¦on servant leadership have increased in the past few years, there has still been limited research conducted in a systematic, quantitative man ner† (Taylor et al, 2007 p. 415). Indeed, the popular appeal of servant leadership as an evolving leadership approach has not translated into academic respectability, in large part due to the under-representation of the theory in major textbooks on management, leadership and organizational behavior. Due to the lack of a significant research base on servant leadership, Sendjaya et al (2008) postulate that the model is still been faced with vague psychometric properties, which are fundamentally important for further development and validation of the approach. It is also generally felt that many organizations that are perceived to practice servant leadership are hierarchical in nature and, consequently, the power distance between the servant leaders and their followers or other team members may not be conducive to the elements or themes of servant leadership discussed in this paper (Ebener O’Connell, 2010). Spiritual Leadership Definition Conceptions Fry (2003) argues th at â€Å"†¦the purpose of spiritual leadership is to create vision and value congruence across the strategic, empowered team, and individual levels and, ultimately, to foster higher levels of organizational commitment and productivity† (p. 693). Unlike classic organizational, administrative and leadership theories, spiritual leadership can be defined as encompassing the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are perceived as essential to fundamentally motivate people so that they are able to develop a sense of spiritual survival at work through calling and membership (Karadog, 2009). Extant research demonstrates that although the conceptions of spiritual leadership are many and varied (Carter, 2009), they revolve around the issues of spiritual beliefs (e.g., hope and faith in God); transcendence of self, manifesting in an active sense of calling or destiny; engagement in spiritual practices (e.g., praying, meditating, and reading scripture), and; conviction that an indivi dual’s activities have meaning and value beyond the immediate economic benefits or self-gratification (Ferguson Miliman, 2008). Consequently, this paper will utilize one construct proposed by Fry (2003) cited in Freeman (2011), which â€Å"†¦explains spirituality in leadership within an intrinsic motivation model that incorporates vision, altruistic love/faith; theories of workplace spirituality and spiritual survival; and the organizational outcomes of commitment and productivity† (p. 122). Research on Spiritual Leadership Fry Matherly (n.d.) are in agreement that â€Å"†¦issues regarding workplace spirituality have been receiving increased attention in the organizational sciences and the implications of workplace spirituality for leadership theory, research, and practice make this a fast growing area of new research and inquiry by scholars† (p. 3). Research has demonstrated that spiritual leadership not only lead to valuable personal results such a s enhanced positive human health and psychological happiness but that it also conveys improved employee satisfaction, loyalty and commitment while reducing instances of absenteeism and turnover (Carter, 2009). Indeed, Kaplan Norton (2004) cited in Fry Matherly (n.d.) argue that â€Å"†¦a high degree of workplace spirituality and spiritual leadership, as a driver of organizational commitment and productivity, is essential to optimizing organizational performance† (p. 3). Consequently, many research studies (e.g., Ferguson Miliman, 2008; Freeman, 2011; Fry Cohen, 2009; Fry Matherly, n.d.) conclude that spiritual leadership basically entails motivating and inspiring employees through a transcendent vision and a culture that is intrinsically grounded on altruistic values to produce a more inspired, satisfied, committed and productive workforce. Limitations of Spiritual Leadership Researchers have identified several major weaknesses that must be addressed for spiritual l eadership to gain acceptance within the scientific community as a newly emerging paradigm. Ferguson Miliman (2008) note that there exist a lack of accepted conceptual definition of what spirituality actually entails, while Fry Cohen (2008) note that there are inadequate measurement tools to evaluate the thematic conceptions of spirituality. Limited theoretical development and legal concerns have also been identified as genuine challenges for the development of a leadership paradigm that is rooted in spirituality (Fry Matherly, n.d.). Authentic Leadership Definition and Conceptions The term authenticity â€Å"†¦implies that one acts in accord with the true self, expressing oneself in ways that are consistent with inner thoughts and feelings† (Avolio Gardner, 2005, p. 320). The recognition of the self-referential nature of authenticity, therefore, is fundamental to comprehending the construct of authentic leadership. Avolio et al (2004) cited in Avolio Gardner (2005) describe authentic leaders as individuals who are profoundly conscious â€Å"†¦of how they think and behave and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others’ values/moral perspectives, knowledge, and strengths; aware of the context in which they operate; and who are confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, and of high moral character† (p. 321). The related conception of authentic leadership is defined by academics as a process that draws from both positive psychological capabilities and a well matured organizational context, which results in both superior self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors and actions on the part of leaders and their followers (Avolio Garner, 2005), fostering positive modeling, self-development, and the attainment of sustainable and veritable performance (Rowe Guerrero, 2011; Blausten, 2009). Effects of Authentic Leadership The effects of authentic leadership are many and varied (Blausten, 2009), and include : development of positive psychological capital and positive moral perspective (Rowe Guerrero, 2011); development of leader and follower self-awareness in terms of values, cognitions, and emotions; development of leader and follower self-regulation in terms of internalized behavior, balanced processing, and authentic behavior (Avolio Gardner, 2005); development of leadership processes and behaviors such as positive modeling, personal and social identification, emotional contagion, self determination and positive social exchanges (Sendjaya et al, 2008); follower development, and; veritable and sustainable organizational performance (Rubin et al, 2010). It is also generally felt that authentic leadership institutes open, transparent, trusting and genuine relationships between the leaders and followers. Research on Authentic Leadership A number of scholars have undertaken research on authentic leadership. One of the pioneers of these studies was Bill George, who posited â€Å"†¦that being yourself; being the person you were created to be rather than developing an image or persona of a leader is the way to restore confidence in business organizations after Enron and Arthur Andersen† (Sparrowe, 2005, p. 420). When formulating their model of authentic leadership development, Luthans Avolio (2003) cited in Sparrowe (2005) argue that the kind of leadership that can reinstate confidence from the challenge of declining hope in organizational leaders and their associates is by engaging individuals who are true to themselves, and whose transparency and accountability in either public or private discourse positively transforms or develops the followers into leaders themselves. Limitations of Authentic Leadership While Walumbwa et al (2008) report that it is often difficult to measure some aspects of authentic leadership, Avolio Garner (2005) argue that more research is needed â€Å"†¦on the relationship between authentic leadership and the levels of s elf-awareness of leaders and followers† (p. 334). These authors also report a dearth in research relating to evaluating the direct consequence of the leader’s positive psychological capital on associates and their mediating outcomes on sustained organizational productivity and performance. Similarities Differences of Servant, Spiritual Authentic Approaches of Leadership Research into the three approaches of leadership has demonstrated some shared, common features of the approaches as well as broad differences. Among the similarities, Avolio Gardener (2005) argue that leaders in the three approaches must exhibit positive moral perspective and demonstrate self-awareness in terms of values, cognitions, and emotions. Similarly, all approaches advocate for self-determination, follower self-awareness and follower development (Sendjaya et al, 2008), not mentioning that they share a strong emphasis on the ethical dimension of leadership (Brown Mitchell, 2010). Sendjaya et a l (2008) argue that both the â€Å"†¦servant leadership and Fry’s (2003) spiritual leadership models appeal to virtuous leadership practices and intrinsic motivating factors to cultivate a sense of meaning, purpose, and interconnectedness in the workplace† (p. 404). These authors suggest that both leadership paradigms endeavor to facilitate a holistic, integrated workplace where people engage in significant, meaningful and intrinsically motivating work, and where leadership orientation finds its expression or meaning and purpose of life through service. Indeed, available literature demonstrates that the spiritual leadership’s conceptions of vision, altruistic love, and hope/faith (Fry Matherly, n.d.) are also embedded in the conceptions of servant leadership (Sendjaya et al, 2008; Freeman, 2011). Given the discussed similarities, it would be conceivable to assert that â€Å"†¦servant leadership is embedded in spiritual leadership in that servant lead ership is a manifestation of altruistic love in the action of pursuing transcendent vision and being driven to satisfy needs for calling and membership† (Sendjaya et al, 2008, p. 404). Conversely, it would be equally conceivable to argue that spiritual leadership is grounded on the motivational basis for servant leaders to engage followers in authentic and thoughtful ways that transform their behavioral orientation to be what they are competent of becoming (Freeman, 2011). Sendjaya et al (2008) posit that servant leaders have the capacity to lead authentically since their leadership originates from the ‘being’ as evidenced in their unswerving display of humility, integrity, accountability, security and vulnerability. It is important to note that the causal spiritual leadership model developed by Fry (2003) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) â€Å"†¦identifies follower needs for spiritual survival as expressed through calling and membership as outcome variables, whereas calling and membership are inherent in servant leadership behaviors† (p. 405). Consequently, it can be argued that spirituality is one of the many facets of servant leadership, but there exist other equally fundamental facets such as self-sacrificial servant-hood behavior, empowerment, collective work, and moral values that are not evidently expressed in many spiritual leadership models (Sendjaya et al, 2008). It has been observed that a critical aspect of spiritual leadership is the need to be authentic, hence the relationship between spiritual leadership and authentic leadership. Spiritual leadership is also related to servant leadership in that it intrinsically focuses on â€Å"†¦serving others and emphasizing the development of people† (Ferguson Milliman, 2008, p. 448). Among the differences, Avolio Garner (2005) notes that internalized self regulation is demonstrated in both spiritual and authentic leadership, while authentic behavior is demonstrated in servant as well as authentic leadership, but not in spiritual leadership. Equally, it can be argued that spirituality is a significant source of motivation for servant leaders but is not highlighted in the authentic leadership model (Sendjaya et al, 2008). Personal and social identification on the part of the leader is present in authentic leadership but vaguely demonstrated in both servant and spiritual leadership. Equally, positive social exchange is clearly outlined as a conception of authentic leadership but not for spiritual and servant leadership (Avolio Gardner, 2005). The conception of follower self-awareness in terms of cognitions and emotions is clearly outlined in both authentic and spiritual leadership, but is not considered in the servant leadership. Lastly, it has been noted in the literature that the conception of relational transparency is carried with much weight in authentic leadership but not in the other two leadership approaches (Avolio Gardner, 2005) Comp aring the Approaches with Transformational Charismatic Theories Defining Transformational Leadership Burns (1978) cited in Sagnak (2010) defined transformational leadership as moral leadership, where â€Å"†¦leaders and followers further take each other’s motivation and morality to higher levels† (p. 1137). Bass (1985) also cited in Sagnak (2010) further advanced the transformational leadership approach to include the aspects of idealized influence (charisma) on the part of the leader, inspirational motivation, self-fulfillment, intellectual simulation, self-actualization, and personalized consideration. A transformational leader, according to Engelbrecht et al (2005), aims to fundamentally alter the values, beliefs and attitudes of followers. Defining Charismatic Leadership Weber (1947) cited in Fry (2003) defined charismatic leadership as any approach that demonstrates: strong desire to influence others; ability to act as a role model for the beliefs and values that followers need to adopt; ability to articulate ideological goals with moral overtones; ability to communicate high expectations and demonstrate confidence in followers’ abilities to meet and surpass these expectations; ability to arouse task-relevant motivation by tapping followers’ needs for esteem, power, and affiliation, and; ability to link the identity of followers (employees) to the collective identity of the organization. A Discussion of the Similarities Differences Leadership scholars have often asserted that servant leadership is somewhat similar to transformational leadership in that â€Å"†¦both approaches encourage leaders and followers to raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality† (Sendjaya et al, 2008, p. 403). However, these authors note that servant leaders are theoretically different from Bass’s (1985) transformational leaders in that not only are servant leaders more likely than transformational leaders to exhibit the natural inclination to serve disadvantaged and marginalized people, but the outcomes of enhanced motivation and commitment demonstrated by transformational leaders â€Å"†¦may not necessarily benefit followers as there is nothing in the transformational leadership model that says that leaders should serve followers for the good of followers† (p. 403). However, it should be noted that as is the case with servant leadership, the transformational leadership model outlined by Burns (1978) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) required leaders to lead the followers for their own ultimate good. While the role of servant leaders may be seen in the light of serving followers; that of a transformational leader may be perceived in the light of encouraging followers to pursue organizational goals and objectives (Sendjaya et al, 2008). Another distinction closely related to this is that while transformational leadership deals primarily with ‘performance beyond expectatio ns’, servant leadership is fundamentally concerned with entrenching the followers’ holistic moral and ethical development (Taylor et al, 2005). Whetstone (2002) observes that whereas a transformational leader may be instrumental and manipulative in nature, a servant leader is bound to be manipulated by the followers. Taylor et al (2007) suggest that although servant leadership may be perceived as an extension of transformational leadership, it ends up valuing people and treating them as ends rather than means while many transformational theories treats people as means to achieve organizational objectives. However, the authors note that the followers’ emotional attachment to the leader in servant leadership, along with the motivational arousal of followers as an outcome of the leader’s behavior and actions, is fundamentally considered a consequence of transformational leadership. Carter (2009) argues that spiritual leadership shares some convergent element s with transformational leadership in that it is not only linked to social responsibility, integrity and stability, but it shapes the values, beliefs and practices of followers, and provides overall meaning to their own existence. Some central components of both spiritual and transformational leadership theories, according to Sagnak (2010), include the commitment of the manager to a higher cause or purpose and the articulation of meaningful values on a deeper level to organizational members. Additionally, Avolio Gardner (2005) posit that the conception of follower development is a focal component in servant, spiritual, and authentic leadership but is vaguely outlined in transformational and charismatic leadership models. As observed by Avolio Gardner (2005), transformational and authentic leadership are related in that authenticity serves as a moral compass by which the objectives and intentions of transformational leaders can be holistically determined. However, these authors not e that although authentic leadership can encompass all the other leadership approaches (e.g., transformational, charismatic, servant, and spiritual), it may not be charismatic to the extent demonstrated by transformational leadership as authentic leaders must work hard and lead with purpose, meaning and values to build lasting relationship with followers. To the contrary, Sagnak (2010) observes that transformational leaders â€Å"†¦may be charismatic in their opinion of the followers and thereby inspire them; they meet emotional needs of each employee and/or provide intellectual simulation† (p. 1137). This distinction demonstrates that being an authentic leader does not automatically imply that the leader is transformational. Brown Mitchell (2010) posit that â€Å"†¦transformational and charismatic leadership have been studied extensively and the cumulative findings suggest that [they] are positively associated with important ethics-related outcomes such as follow er’s perceptions of trust in fairness of their leader and organizational citizenship behaviors† (p. 586). This therefore implies that these leadership approaches projects similar elements with servant, spiritual and authentic leadership in terms of followers’ trust and organizational citizenship behaviors. Internalized self regulation and personal and social identification are focal components shared by authentic, spiritual, transformational, and charismatic leadership approaches, but are largely absent in servant leadership (Avolio Gardner, 2005). Conclusion This analysis contributes to our understanding of ethical leadership and its different variations, namely servant, spiritual and authentic leadership. The careful comparisons between these leadership theories and other conventional leadership models such as transformational and charismatic leadership give credence to the fact that leader emphasis on ethical dimensions of leadership generates beneficial pers onal and organizational outcomes. It has also been demonstrated that value-based leadership projected in servant, spiritual and authentic leadership is predicated on shared, robustly internalized values that are promoted and acted upon by the leader, but which goes a long way to ensure leadership effectiveness, positive organizational outcomes in terms of competencies development and productivity, and follower development (Fry, 2003). The task, therefore, is for the management of contemporary organizations to select a leadership approach that will articulate a better vision of a better future. Reference List Avolio, B.J., Gardner, W.L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(1), 315-338. Blausten, P. (2009). Can authentic leadership survive the downturn? Business Strategy Review, 20(1), 84-87. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Brown, M.E., Mitchell, M.S. (2010). 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Spirituality and servant leadersh ip: A Conceptual model and research proposal. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 4(1), 120-140. Fry, L., Cohen, M. (2009). Spiritual leadership as a paradigm for organizational transformation and recovery from extended work hours cultures. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 265-278. Fry, L.W., Matherly, L.L. (n.d.). Spiritual leadership and organizational performance: An exploratory study. Retrieved from https://www.tarleton.edu/home/. Irving, J.A. (2005). Servant leadership and the effectiveness of teams. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Regent University. Retrieved from http://people.bethel.edu/~irvjus/PDF/Irving,Justin-RegentUniversity_final.pdf. Karadog, E. (2009). Spiritual leadership and organizational culture: A study of structural equation modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory Practice, 9(3), 1391-1405. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Millar, C.J.M., Delves, R., Harris, P. (2010). Ethical and unethical leadership: Double vision? Journal of Public Affairs, 10(3), 109-120. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Rowe, G., Guerrero, L. (2011). Cases in leadership. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Rubin, R.S., Diedorff, E.C., Brown, M.E. (2010). Do ethical leaders get ahead? Exploring ethical leadership and promotability. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(2), 215-236. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Sagnak, M. (2010). The relationship between transformational school leadership and ethical climate. Educational Sciences: Theory Practice, 10(2), 1135-1152. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Sendjaya, S., Sarros, J.C., Santora, J.C. (2008). Defining and measuring servant leadership behavior in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, 45(2), 402-424. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Sparrowe, R.T. (2005). Authentic leadership and the narrative self. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(1), 419-439. Taylor, T., Martin, B.N., Hutchinson, S., Jinks, M. (2007). Examination of leadership practices of principles identified as servant leaders. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 10(4), 401-419. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Walumbwa, F., Avolio, B., Gardner, W., Wernsing, T., Peterson, S. (2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89-126. Waterman, H. (2011). Principles of servant leadership and how they can enhance practice. Nursing Management, 17(9), 24-36. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Whetstone, J.T. (2002). Personalism and moral leadership: The servant leader with a transforming vision. Business Ethics: A European Review, 11(4), 385-392. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Xiaoyong, X., Fen, Y., Jiannong, S. (2011). Ethical leadership and leaders’ personalities. Social Behavior Personality: An International Journal, 39(3), 361-268. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Yukl, G.A. (2009). Leaders hip in Organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Context and Cultural Consideration - Assignment Example Personally, I am Mexican-Irish having parents from both cultural communities and cherishes the practices as good and comforting as my life progresses. Since I am half Mexican and half Irish, I have to subscribe to the two cultures and practice them as much as possible. Actually, I love and enjoy both the Mexican and Irish culture and feel culturally accomplished when in either of the societies (Ungar, 2011). The historical and native of Mexicans is Mexico that lies just to the West and Southwest of USA. Mexicans are somewhat black and brown in complexion that makes them appear as neither Whites nor Blacks. However, most have witnessed racial discriminations, abuses, profiling and labelling by the whites who collectively view Mexicans as blacks. Being colony of Spain, large population of Mexicans living in speaks Spanish. For purposes of proper integration and compatibility, I had to learn the Spanish language. Mexicans in the rural towns of the Mexico country still hold to the earlier traditional practices despite the widespread perception among many people that Mexico is among the most enlightened countries. Interestingly, Mexicans living in the cities like Mexico City, Monterrey and Guadalajara among others, and who have exposure to much of Western cultures as influenced by USA and Europe through physical interaction and media tend to abide more to the foreign cultures. The mentioned population is very sensitive to changes to in fashion and ensures to update with the fashion transformations (Zunker, 2008). My Mexican family is big and boasts of people with diverse stands and views in life. An individual who manages to accommodate and work with such a mix of people can undoubtedly manage to handle even the most challenging clients. Mexicans have rich music and film industries that gain great acceptance across the globe. Ireland that is the inhabitant of the Irish is one of the constituent members of the United Kingdom (UK) in the continent Europe.  Ã‚  

Culture and Disease Essay Example for Free

Culture and Disease Essay Human body consists of organs which each plays a role in a coordinated system to facilitate the normal function ability of the body. Sometimes the body might function abnormally due to failure of proper function of an organ or organs. In such a situation the organ might be affected by a disease which might inflict pain to the body, damaging it and often might result to total failure and eventually death. Diseases are common to human beings, animals and even plants. Diseases in most cases are preventable and curable although some diseases may cause permanent injuries and disability to the patient. Some several factors are related to various disease which might also dictate the extent on which it spreads and causes the effect. Diseases are classified according to various factors like what are the causes, the type, and means of contracting the disease, the affected species and many other factors (Cooter, Roger, and John Pickstone, eds. (2000). Human beings are vulnerable to majority of diseases which falls in different categories. Some of them are contagious which falls in different diseases have drastic effects and may cause death easily while others are easily curable and they cause no extensive damage to our body so long as they are treated. Depending on the kind of diseases, some are related to a particular culture. Examples of some diseases are like the heart diseases which affect the heart and its blood vessels tampering with the normal functioning of it. Heart diseases fall into different categories which include heart failure which involves the being unable to pump blood in the entire body which causes insufficient blood to reach all the targeted organs in the body well. Sometimes some organs malfunction due to less blood supplied to them. The other type of heart disease is the heart arrhythmias which cause the heart beat pace to change. The heart might beat faster than the normal pace or sometimes slower. Third type of disease is canomy artery disease which commonly causes the heart attack. This disease causes the heart to receive less blood than unaccepted due to the naming of the blood arteries hence the slow movement of the blood to the heart. The narrow artery tends to restrict sufficient flow of the blood to the heart. Sometimes the arteries are fully blocked leading to heart attack. Circumstances that cause the heart disease may differ depending on the conditions under which a person lives and the situation in which a person lives and the situation in which he or she is involved in. one of the conditions that might cause heart disease is the high blood cholesterol. Liver is the organ in the body that is responsible for producing the cholesterol which is essential in the body system. The cholesterol is delivered to the rest of the body cells through blood flow. Considering the substantial composition of the cholesterol and the fact that it comes from the animal ft and other saturated fats then there is a high risk when it is in high content in our bodies. Excessive cholesterol then sticks on the wall of the blood vessels like pulmonary arteries which narrows the passage hence insufficient blood reaching to the heart. This eventually might lead to a condition such as heart attack. Another way in which heart disease are caused, is through high blood pressure coupled with the problem of obesity. This situation is much contributed by obesity or overweight which may also lead to high blood cholesterol as previously discussed. Stress is also considered as another factor that contributed to the heart disease. This is a situation that affects someone’s emotions due to various reasons based on economic status, social status are psychological maters that concentrates on the thinking capacity of someone’s brain. According to () the blood pressure and the heart beat is mostly increased by the stress which can also increase the release of hormones of heart disease are increased. In this paper the concentration of heart diseases is focused on the African American race. Currently the cardio-vascular disease is more prevalent in the blacks than on the case of white people. This can be associated to several factors which causes or facilitates the dominancy of the heart disease. One of the factors is obesity. Being among the risks that leads to obesity, in United States African Americans have been found to be mostly affected by obesity in comparison to the white people. This might be as a result of eating habits and the lifestyle which in mot cases differs depending on the locality and the age. Physical inactivity may also attribute much in obesity and overweight which eventually contributes to heart diseases. Another factor is high rate of smoking among African American as compared to the white people. The smoke that is inhaled in the body is explained biologically on how it raises the heart beat and also it is responsible in raising the blood pressure. Nicotine and other compounds found in the cigarette also cause harm to the heart and also may lead to heart attack. Diabetes is another disease which is common to African Americans as compared to white people. Those suffering from the disease have bigger probability of contracting heart disease. In such situations the patient therefore needs more attention in order to reduce the risk of heart disease. Hypertension can also be considered as another factor among the African Americans which contribute to the development of heart diseases. African-American people have a different lifestyle from the white people which can easily be related to the individual health status. African Americans are exposed to the heart disease due to several environmental factors. Pollution of air is among the environmental factors that can contribute to the heart disease. African-Americans live in environment which is badly polluted with gases like carbondioxide and others which may directly or indirectly facilitate to the heart diseases (Rosenberg et al 1992). Smoking can be considered in the air pollution which exposes non smokers to the risk of being affected through breathing the smoked provided by smokers. This habit which is common to African American contributes to the factor that leads to heart diseases. Considered to be minor race in United States, African American find themselves in an environment whereby they feel isolated and sometimes there some unfavorable conditions like job strains etc. these factors may subsequently lead to a lot of cases of stress in individuals which might be related to the heart disease. According to Holman, C. D. J. , and B. K. Armstrong (1984), although not a major determining vulnerability to heart diseases. Delicate newborn babies can easily be exposed to the cause of heart diseases. From the research carried out African American who was born in southern part have higher rates of heart diseases than the whites born in the northern part. Food when eaten unselectively can pose a danger to the human health. Obesity which is common to African Americans is as a result of inconsiderate eating habits. Availability of fatty foods in African American locality can be an influential factor to such conditions which may lead to them consuming those foods unselectively hence leading to undesirable condition like obesity and over weight and eventually to heart disease. Heart diseases are mostly not contagious as compared to other diseases like flu, (Rosenberg et al 1992). One of the methods under which the heart disease can be transmitted from are person to another is through heredity. According to () in a situation whereby parents suffer from heart disease, there is always a likelihood of the disease to be passed to the generation that follows. Biological intervention has indicated that the heart disease can be transmitted from one person to the other genetically. This has been explained through the cardiology study and genetics. Various methods can be applied to control the heart disease. Among them include the client observation which may ensure that feeding habits are regulated to avoid obesity and overweight which is among the major contributing factors to the disease. Fatty foods especially from animal products which might cause the high levels of cholesterol should be regulated while feeding on them. Smoking and excessive intake of alcohol which have been considered to be directly or indirectly cause of heart disease ought to be critically regulated in order to minimize the vulnerability of heart diseases. As a way of reducing the chances of getting heart disease people should attempt to live a stress free life in order to avoid unnecessary hypertension which may result to heart diseases. Heart diseases among the African Americans can be treated through lipid modifying. Under this concept it’s biologically explained on how the lipid can be lowered in the body through lipid lowering therapy which is best explained biologically. The other method used is through lowering the level of the cholesterol in the blood. This is very effective in the sense that the arteries can be repaired from the narrow shape they had taken due to the elimination of the cholesterol in the arteries. African Americans also use the medications which are provided in the hospital which involves intake of prescribed medicine by a doctor or practitioners. Due to their social economic status, the African Americans are vulnerable to the prevalence of the heart disease. This depends on the background they come from and settled in the United States. Most feel that they still want to maintain their culture including even in clients. But still the consumption of these traditional foods also has the positive side to it on the side of medication. Culture has been seen to play a big part in influencing people’s ways of life. This is especially true when it comes to dietary constitution for different groups. Additionally, distinct lifestyles may be attributed to cultural groups and this also determines the nature of disease that the said group is exposed to. More cultural based research is therefore necessary to establish the practices that promote health so that they may be encouraged while discouraging those practices that increase groups risk of getting some diseases. References Cooter, Roger, and John Pickstone, eds. (2000). Medicine in the Twentieth Century. Amsterdam: Harwood,. Holman, C. D. J. , and B. K. Armstrong. 1984. Pigmentary traits, ethnic origin, benign nevi, and family history as risk factors for cutaneous malignant melanoma. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Rosenberg, Charles E. , and Janet Golden, eds. (1992). Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History. New Brunswick, N. J. : Rutgers University Press.

The Effects Of Divorce on Students :: Essays Papers

The Effects Of Divorce on Students How significant is the impact of divorce on children? There have been studies that show that divorce has a negative effect on children. The impact on a child's life often varies depending on the type of divorce and the age of the child during the divorce. The influence of a separation normally effects a child's learning and behavior skills. For a young child the concept of divorce is something that creates many misconceptions. Children do not understand the true meaning or reasoning behind why their parents would ever want to be separated. The initial reaction for most children is to blame themselves or to create a type of reasoning that they can relate to. Due to this, many children often concentrate on rebuilding their family structure instead of engaging in normal childhood activities. Sudden changes in a household can disturb a child's psychological well being. Children sometimes have a tough time being separated from their parents; they fear that if one parent can leave them why can't the other. Role changes often also occur; the mother may begin to work or a baby-sitter may now play a role in the child's life. The feeling of sadness, loss and abandonment are emotions that almost all children go through. As children develop in households that have experienced divorces, problems begin to come out in many phases of the child's life. After reading an article about the effects of divorce on young children I learned many interesting issues dealing with divorce. The authors say â€Å"Although there is considerable variability in outcomes over time, children in divorced and remarried families are more likely than children from non divorced families to have problems in their relationships with parents, siblings, and peers as well as lower self-esteem and academic problems† (Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella, 1998,pg#2-3). The article also discuses the fact that the percentage of children who drop out of school and have divorced parents is greater then drop out rate of students who's parents are still married (Pedro-Carroll, 1999 pg.3). Over the years organizations have been established to help children cope with issues that have to due with divorce. An organization called The Children of Divorce Intervention Program (CODIP) is a support program that was formed to meet the needs of children.

Explain what is meant by: Diversity and Equality Essay

Equality means that every human being is to be treated in the same way and once cannot differentiate between people, being cause of their faith, sexuality, nationality, gender or age. Everyone is to be treated fairly and equally. Each person has the right to be treated with respect and has the right to participate with others. Equality though does not mean identical treatment. To make each human being equally successful one must analyze each person as an individual and take care of that particular person’s needs according to his/her circumstances. The goal however has to be that each individual is reaching the same target however in his own best possible way, but at the end the same goal is successfully reached. To promote equality one must enhance the person’s capabilities to participate in society without any prejudice and as equal no matter what. Everyone has the right as an individual to have an equal opportunity and make the most of their lives and also should beli eve that they do not have less chances of succeeding because of where they come from, their beliefs or a disability. Diversity means that every human being though they are all different (character, culture, colour, religion, race, sexuality & gender) yet we are all somehow the same. To accept diversity one must accept and value one’s differences. Basically the word diversity is very similar to the meaning of equality however diversity promotes the approach and aims to identify the importance of human beings being difference from one another. Being different is a positive thing and makes the world colorful. Without Diversity life would be boring and everyone would be the same, no fresh ideas, no creation and without any improvement what so ever. Diversity is what makes the world move forward. When this approach is managed in the work setting the employees pitch in to give their full potential. Diversity challenges us to identify all sorts of differences and appreciate them in order to make our surroundings a better place for everyone to work. Inclusion means that one has to make sure that all the children and young people regardless of their environment they are brought up in, or what problems they might have, gender, disability religion etc. they have equal access to education and are able to participate in full.

Weight Problems Related to Problems with Fertility Essay

Weight Problems Related to Problems with Fertility Infertility is a consequence of eating disorders that is not addressed as often as other consequences. What effect does eating disorders have infertility? Eating disorders can have people overweight, underweight and sometimes a normal weight. Body size has been related to several gynecological disorders. Higher risks of infertility have been found in both overweight and underweight women. To what extent being excessively under or overweight increases a woman’s risk for infertility is unknown. Women who are excessively underweight or overweight may be at increased risk of amenorrhea. Women need to have a certain amount of body fat in order to menstruate and conceive children. Many†¦show more content†¦For many studies affecting eating disorders, a BMI (body mass index) of 17.5 - 20 is underweight and under 17.5 is considered very underweight (Reid and Van Vugt 1987). Obesity has a strong association with infertility and menstrual irregularities. While some of the ovulation problems and menstrual changes are explainable by women with Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) who are also obese, women who do not have PCOS but are overweight also have the same problems. Group treatment programs that assist obese women with diet and exercise plans have shown return of fertility in many patients. Weight loss of 15 lbs (6.5 kg) has been shown to restore ovulation. For most studies, 20% over ideal weight is considered obese. Officially, a BMI (body mass index) of 25-30 is considered overweight and a BMI of over 30 is considered obese (Reid and Van Vugt 1987). Furthermore elevated risk are not confined to those acquiring their overweight or underweight in adulthood. Many are related to fatness or thinness in childhood or adolescent. Teenage obesity and thinness on fertility has been emphasized. 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